In 2007 the mineral depletion rate to gross national income ratio of India was 0.7% which was on the higher side as compared to the global average of 0.4% but in other developing countries the ratio was much higher than of India like in China and Russia it was 1.3% and in Brazil 1.6%.
World Bank Report
Every aspect of a city, from economic development and population diversity to social interactions, is impacted by Urban Planning. Interdepartmental cooperation regarding city development is imperative as economic growth, traffic and road planning, healthcare related infrastructure, variations in demographics and education go hand-in-hand.
Urban planning intervention at the right time can help manage city growth using either the preventive approach of Curitiba (which in anticipation of future growth steered its population towards peripheral areas to decongest the city core); or the curative strategy of Cairo (which built new towns in the desert as population density and growth in the city became unmanageable). The success of urban planning intervention hinges on the ability of the local authority to build economic and physical infrastructure within the settlements along with the necessary connectivity to the city centre and to similar other peripheral settlements. This has, unlike the case in Cairo, been successfully demonstrated by cities like Curitiba & closer to home, in Hyderabad. While in the case of Curitiba land-use and transport planning were linked directly with outward urban growth, in the case of Hyderabad, the creation of a high tech peripheral city Cyberabad led to the channelization of growth in a desired direction.
Different approaches to city planning
During the 19th century, traditional urban planning systems based on the Master Planning Approach were absorbed worldwide through mechanisms of colonial and market expansion and intellectual exchange. Modernist urban planning approaches led to the creation of comprehensively planned cities such as Brasilia and Chandigarh. These cities, while designed with large open public spaces and monuments, offered no consideration for surrounding cultures or social norms. As this approach was focused on spatial intervention, it failed to accommodate the aspirations of the majority of inhabitants, leading to social and spatial marginalization.
In recent years, engaging direct citizen participation has gained importance with the decentralization of the government decision making processes - ‘Inclusive Urban Planning’ is the flavor of the day; it has been widely promoted by organizations like the World Bank and even mandated by law in countries such as South Africa under its National Reconstruction Development Program. However, its success is dependent on multiple factors such as political priorities, local capacity and the engagement of the most vulnerable sections of the society.
‘Think Globally, Act Locally’ is the new mantra associated with urban planning as planners have moved from their traditional technical solutions that involved only statistical estimations and forecasts to local communities. Today they take cognizance of the history, culture and ecology of the region to find specific tailor-made solutions to urban planning problems. Finally, it is also necessary that local authorities overcome political barriers as effects of urbanization increasingly exceed local and municipal boundaries. A coordinated approach is required to prevent imbalanced growth stemming from the competition amongst cities in trying to attract investment and human capital. The inter-municipal co-operation among the municipal governments of Wageningen, Ede, Rhenen and Veenendaal in Netherlands for the preparation of a regional plan is a case in point.
Imperatives for successful implementation of the planning process
Political commitment is a prerequisite for the success of any urban planning process as can be inferred from the successful example of Bogota where the Mayor Enrique Penalosa made socio-economic equity a priority for the city’s development.
Successful implementation of the planning process is also dependent on performance monitoring, either at the national or local level. Performance monitoring helps in improving accountability of local authorities to its citizens. Countries like China, Vietnam and Cambodia have been very strict in ensuring accountability in the implementation of infrastructure development.
Citizen engagement in planning
Furthermore, cities like Porto Alegre and Belo Horizonte in Brazil have engaged citizens at different levels through Participatory Budgeting Approaches. The local authorities in these cities have actively partnered with the residents to decide on city level priorities and budgetary allocations in sectors such as housing, water, sanitation, education and health.
The participatory approaches can at times face failures when they get influenced by a specific section of people within a community. To prevent such occurrences, cities like Jakarta, Delhi and Hyderabad have incorporated inputs from various stakeholders into the planning process and implementation of various poverty alleviation schemes. The measures include participation from Non-government Organizations (NGOs), Community Based Organizations (CBOs) and intervention from the national government to align local level urban planning approaches with national level objectives.